Inclusion of Pupils with SENs into Mainstream Physical Education – Potential Research Ideas to Explore Issues of Engagement

One consequence of the 1981 Education Act (DES, 1981) was that there began a transference of pupils from special educational schools to mainstream schools over the coming years. Thus, for the first time in many cases, mainstream schools were expected, through policy developments, to provide an inclusive education culture for pupils with SEN (Special Educational Needs). The aim of this paper is to analyse some of the consequences, intended or otherwise, of including pupils with SEN in mainstream school National Curriculum Physical Education (NCPE) lessons and extra-curricular physical activity. In this regard, it is argued that team games and competitive sports are activities which teachers find particularly difficult to plan for and deliver in an inclusive way, whereas more individual activities such as dance, gymnastics, tennis, badminton and athletics are identified as activities that may be easier to plan and deliver inclusively. The paper is punctuated with potential field research ideas; being possible investigations prompted by this critique of literature. These ideas typically involve suggestions for primary data gathering in the school setting with either pupils or staff, exploring issues for engagement (and non-engagement) with PE and physical activity. The paper concludes that an over emphasis upon competitive team sports and performance in PE may be eroding the quality of learning experience for all pupils, not least those with SEN

Modeling a Clean Energy Standard for Electricity: Policy Design Implications for Emissions, Supply, Prices, and Regions

The electricity sector is responsible for roughly 40 percent of U.S. carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and a shift away from conventional coal-fired generation is an important component of the U.S. strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Toward that goal, several proposals for a clean energy standard (CES) have been put forth, including one espoused by the Obama administration that calls for 80 percent clean electricty by 2035 phased in from current levels of roughly 40 percent. This paper looks at the effects of such a policy on CO2 emissions from the electricity sector, the mix of technologies used to supply electricity, electricity prices, and regional flows of clean energy credits. The CES leads to a 30 percent reduction in cumulative CO2 emissions between 2013 and 2035 and results in dramatic reductions in generation from conventional coal. The policy also results in fairly modest increases on national electricity prices, but this masks a wide variety of effects across regions.renewables, climate, clean energy standard

Allowance Allocation in a CO2 Emissions Cap-and-Trade Program for the Electricity Sector in California

The regulation of greenhouse gas emissions from the electricity sector within a cap-and-trade system poses significant policy questions about how to allocate tradable emission allowances. Allocation conveys tremendous value and can have efficiency consequences. This research uses simulation modeling for the electricity sector to examine different approaches to allocation under a cap-and-trade program in California. The decision affects prices and other aspects of the electricity sector, as well as implications for the overall cost of climate policy. An important issue is the opportunity for emission reductions in California to be offset by emission increases in neighboring regions that supply electricity to the state. The amount of emission leakage (i.e. an increase in CO2 emissions outside of California as a result of the program) varies with the regulatory design of the program.cap-and-trade, electricity generation, electricity sector, emissions, regulation, governance, allocation, California

Compensation for Electricity Consumers Under a U.S. CO2 Emissions Cap

Policies to cap emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the U.S. economy could pose significant costs on the electricity sector, which contributes roughly 40 percent of total CO2 emissions in the U.S. Using a detailed simulation model of the electricity sector, we evaluate alternative ways that emission allowances can be allocated. Most previous emissions trading programs have allocated the major portion of allowances for free to incumbent firms. In the electricity sector this approach would lead to changes in electricity price that vary by region primarily based primarily on whether prices are market-based or determined by cost-of-service regulation. Allocation to customers, which could be achieved by allocation to local distribution companies (retail utilities) would recover symmetry in the effect of free allocation and lead to signficiantly lower overall electricity prices. However, this form of compensation comes with an efficiency cost that will increase the overall cost of climate policy.emissions trading, allowance allocations, electricity, air pollution, auction, grandfathering, cost-effectiveness, greenhouse gases, climate change, global warming, carbon dioxide, asset value, compensation

A Partial Adjustment Model of U.S. Electricity Demand by Region, Season, and Sector

Identifying the factors that influence electricity demand in the continental United States and mathematically characterizing them are important for developing electricity consumption projections. The price elasticity of demand is especially important, since the electricity price effects of policy implementation can be substantial and the demand response to policy-induced changes in prices can significantly affect the cost of policy compliance. This paper estimates electricity demand functions with particular attention paid to the demand stickiness that is imposed by the capital-intensive nature of electricity consumption and to regional, seasonal, and sectoral variation. The analysis uses a partial adjustment model of electricity demand that is estimated in a fixed-effects OLS framework. This model formulation allows for the price elasticity to be expressed in both its short-run and long-run forms. Price elasticities are found to be broadly consistent with the existing literature, but with important regional, seasonal, and sectoral differences.electricity, demand elasticities, energy demand, partial adjustment

Supply Curves for Conserved Electricity

In this paper, we introduce a new top-down approach to modeling the effects of publicly financed energy-efficiency programs on electricity consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The approach draws on a partial-adjustment econometric model of electricity demand and represents the results of a reverse auction for electricity savings from different levels of public investment. The model is calibrated to recent estimates of the cost-effectiveness of rate payer–funded efficiency programs at reducing electricity consumption. The results suggest that supply curves for conserved electricity are upward sloping, convex, and dependent on policy design and electricity prices. Under the scenarios modeled, electricity savings of between 1 and 3 percent are achievable at a marginal cost of $50 per megawatt hour (MWh) and a corresponding average cost of$25–$35/MWh.energy efficiency, climate change

Restructuring and Cost of Reducing NOx Emissions in Electricity Generation

The U.S. electric power sector is in the midst of two major regulatory changes. One is the change from cost-of-service regulation to competition as a means of disciplining electricity prices, often referred to as “electricity restructuring.” The other is the apparently increasing scope and stringency of environmental regulation; proposed tighter restrictions on nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from existing generators are one recent example. We look at the effects of restructuring on three issues: (a) economic surplus and environmental quality, (b) the cost of NOx control policies and who bears the costs, and (c) the cost-effectiveness of a seasonal and an annual NOx cap in the SIP Call region. We find that without the NOx cap, nationwide restructuring leads to higher NOx and carbon emissions from the electricity sector. Adding either a seasonal or an annual NOx cap-and-trade regime in the eastern United States mitigates the increase in NOx emissions but has a much smaller effect on carbon emissions. The out-of-pocket compliance cost associated with achieving a seasonal or an annual NOx cap is moderately higher with nationwide restructuring than without, but the changes in economic surplus are significantly higher. For a seasonal policy, most of the costs are borne by electricity consumers. For an annual policy, most of the incremental costs beyond those with seasonal controls are borne by producers. However, the economic benefits of nationwide restructuring more than offset the higher costs of controlling NOx emissions in a more competitive environment. The foregone economic surplus is compared with the benefits resulting from NOx emission reductions using an integrated assessment model of atmospheric transport and valuation of human health effects. We find an annual policy dominates a seasonal policy from a cost effectiveness perspective under limited restructuring, and even more strongly under nationwide restructuring.electricity, restructuring, deregulation, competition, emissions trading, particulates, nitrogen oxides, NO x, health benefits, cost effectiveness

The Effect on Asset Values of the Allocation of Carbon Dioxide Emission Allowances

Paradoxically, owners of existing generation assets may be better off paying for carbon dioxide emission allowances than having them distributed for free. This analysis shows that it takes just 7.5% of the revenue raised under an auction to preserve the asset values of existing generators.carbon dioxide, emission allowance trading, allocation, electricity, restructuring, air pollution, auction, grandfathering, generation performance standard, outputbased allocation, cost-effectiveness

Cost-Effective Reduction of NOx Emissions from Electricity Generation

This paper analyzes the benefits and costs of policies to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from electricity generation in the United States. Because emissions of NOx contribute to the high concentration of atmospheric ozone in the eastern states that is associated with health hazards, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has called on eastern states to formulate state implementation plans (SIPs) for reducing NOx emissions. Our analysis considers three NOx reduction scenarios: a summer seasonal cap in the eastern states covered by EPA’s NOx SIP Call, an annual cap in the same SIP Call region, and a national annual cap. All scenarios allow for emissions trading. Although EPA’s current policy is to implement a seasonal cap in the SIP Call region, this analysis indicates that an annual cap in the SIP Call region would yield about 400 million dollars more in net benefits (benefits less costs) than would a seasonal policy, based on particulate-related health effects only. An annual cap in the SIP Call region is also the policy that is most likely to achieve benefits in excess of costs. Consideration of omissions from this accounting, including the potential benefits from reductions in ozone concentrations, strengthens the finding that an annual program offers greater net benefits than a seasonal program.emissions trading, electricity, particulates, nitrogen oxides, NO x, health benefits